ROSE CULTIVATION

I. Introduction

The rose has been loved and cherished from very ancient times. In modern age, its importance bas become still greater because rose breeders have been increasing its range of colours while at the same time adding valuable characters like disease resistance and a longer period of flowering. It is a versatile plant and the fantastically large number of types available is one of the reasons for its great popularity. There are now roses for every purpose and even the person with only a tiny plot of land will find there are varieties available to him which will provide a welcome splash of colour to a wall or furnish quantities of exquisite cut flowers. Now-a-days, roses are grown throughout the country and perhaps no flower is more loved in India. The rose is valued for purposes of worship and for making garlands in our country. Recently the Rose Society of India has laid out a beautiful National Rose Garden in New Delhi.

II. Climate

The climatic conditions of India are well suited to rose cultivation. Roses need bright sunshine and free ventilation. Sunshine for six hours is ideal for better growth and flowering.

In the northern plains, roses flower best during winter whereas in the temperate hilly regions of the Himalayas in summer. Western part of India have excellent agro-climatic conditions for rose growing. The plams of eastern India are suitable for the cultivation of many rose cultivars. Banglore has mild climate Where roses can be grown for flowers throughout the year.

III. Soil

Although any soil is good for rose cultivation provided it has proper drainage, the ideal soil should be medium loam having sufficient organic matter, pH of 6.0 -7.5. The land where the external drainage is poor and water stagnates during monsoon should not be selected for rose growing. In very heavy soils, gravel and sand may be mixed into the bed to allow drainage. The land with high water table is not suitable for rose beds.

IV. Layout of Beds

The plan of rose garden and design of the beds should be simple and informal. Rose beds may be of various design, depending upon the liking of the grower. However, rectangular beds are advantageous for maintenance. The width of the beds should be such that operations like weeding, hoeing, forking, cutting of flowers etc, can be done from both the sides of the bed, without stepping into the bed. A plot size of 6.0 x 1.2m or 6.0 x1.65m is suggested for better management of rose plants. The length can be increased to a limited extent depending upon the specific situations.

V. Growth and Flowering

Factors like genetic or inherent factors, climatic or environmental factors such as light, temperature, moisture, aeration and managemental factors like nutrition and soil conditions influence growth and flowering.

A. Genetic factors

Like other plants, growth and flowering behaviour of roses is governed by genetic factors. The range of variability in roses is very great. There are tall cultivars growing several metres high and are suitable for planting in backdrop and as hedges. On the other hand, miniature roses with dwarf habit and producing small flowers are also available. Several cultivars are bushy in nature while many are climbers and ramblers. A wide choice of cultivars with long sturdy stems having nice flower forms suitable for cut-flowers are also available today. Similarly, there are cultivars blooming in different periods and producing varied yield and quality of flowers. Some possess high quality perfume.

B. Environmental factors

Along with genetic factors, environmental factors play an important role on growth and flowering.

1. Light

Light is one of the most important factors influencing the growth and flowering of roses. This may vary with intensity, duration and quality of light. The total plant weight may be reduced by the decrease in light intensity, and 'the number of flowers produced increases with increased radiation.

Plants growing under shade produce thinner leaves with low chlorophyll content However, because of high light intensity and the consistent rise in temperature, summer grower apply a light shading material on the roof of the glasshouse. Colour of rose flowers is also influenced by the high intensity of light The influence of duration  of light is most marked and spectacular on growth and in inducing or suppressing flowering.

2. Temperature

Temperature affects the quantity and quality of the plant and the flower. At a night temperature of 15.5^oC the quality and quantity of roses produced are considered to be satisfactory. Low temperature also brings about the development of pigment in the leaves stems or flowers. The stem and flower buds needs an exposure to cool temperature for their expansion. Winter chilling is necessary for flower bud formation.

3. Humidity

Humidity plays an important role in the incidence of pests and diseases affecting the growth and flowering. Certain disease like mildew's are associated with high relative humidity. Its importance, however, lies in the internal water conditions of the plants. By maintaining reasonably high humidity, the internal deficiency of water will be less. Enlargement of cells is caused by water and, therefore, we should the loss of water from the plants so that leaves and flowers would be larger and stems longer.

4. Aeration

Proper soil aeration and an exchange of air in green house are also desirable for the normal growth and development. Compact soils have restricted aeration which impede the activity of roots affecting the plant growth. Air circulation ensures an adequate supply of carbondioxide and oxygen for physiological processes occurring in the plant and also reduces the relative humidity which may cause serious infections. Carbon dioxide is an important factor in photosynthesis in increasing the stem length and dry matter.

C. Plant management practices

Pruning, pinching, disbudding, deshooting, defoliation and deflowering are the plant management practices done for rose cultivation.

1. Pruning

Pruning is an important operation regulating the growth and flowering of roses. Pruning in roses is explained in detail the cultivation section. Following are some other plant management practices which influence the vegetative growth and production of flowers.

2. Pinching

Removal of a part of terminal growing portion of stem is called pinching. It reduces the plant height but promotes auxiliary branching and also prevents maturity of flower bud.

3. Disbudding

Removal of undesirable buds is known as disbudding. Keeping only the central bud and removal of others cause development of a quality bloom.

4. Deshooting

Deshooting is generally followed in Hybrid Tea roses. Young vegetative shoots developing from the axils of leaves of basal and lateral shoots are removed to allow only one terminal shoot. In several rose cultivars such side shoots develop from the eyes down the stem below the terminal flower bud. If these shoots are not inched off at the initial stage, plants become much branched and produce a number of small flowers.

5. Defoliation

Although defoliated plants produced about twice as many shoots as un-defoliated, many of them are blind and the total number of flowers is less. Complete defoliation causes atrophy of almost all flower buds. Removal of only mixture leaves causes about 50% blindness. Removal of only young leaves, however does not cause blindness.

Leaf removal on dormant shoots results in the production of short and nonflowering shoots. Removal of the upper most leaf at the time of pinching results in highly significant increase in flower production. Leaf removal from semi mature shoots is more effective on flower production than from young shoots. Flower quality, is also not reduced by this practice.

6. Deflowering

Removal of faded flowers is called deflowering. If the spent blooms are not removed in time, there is a chance of developing fruit bearing seeds. Once the hips are formed and reach the advance stage of development, growth and flowering are severely reduced during the season. Cutting of faded flowers forces strong laterals which produces a good quality flower.

VI. Propagation

Among propagation methods, budding is most popular in our country because it produces better quality flowers and faster growth of plants. Other methods like, seed propagation, layering, grafting are also important. For more details on budding and grafting refer booklet No.6, "Propagation of Fruit Trees".

1. Budding

Budding is the most popular and successful method for multiplying roses. It provides larger number of plants than cuttings, layering or grafting, as a single shoot of the desired scion furnishes a number of buds for budding. Shield or T- budding is the method ordinarily used. On the selected rootstocks, the buds are inserted into a T-shaped incision and then tied with suitable wrapping material. It takes 3-4 weeks for the buds to unite. The side branches of the stocks are removed which compete with the scion for supply of nutrients and water.

2. Grafting

Inarching or grafting is another method of propagating roses but the cost of a grafted plant In the long run may be higher than that of budded plant. The rootstocks are raised in small pots or polythene bags. The scions are selected and the stocks are brought near the selected scion shoots. The scion shoot should be of medium texture, free from pests and diseases and 1-3 eyes in length. Larger scions are not recommended. A strip of bark, about 3 cm long with a part of wood, is removed from the stock as well as from the scion, and the latter is attached properly on to the stock and wrapped. After union1he scion shoot is cut below the graft and the rootstock above the graft union.

3. Layering

This type of vegetative propagation is usually practiced in climbing and rambling roses during the monsoon or early spring season. Layered plants thrive and bloom quite well as budded or grafted plants. This method has two types, ground layering and air layering.

a. Ground layering

It is performed by bending shoots to the ground and covering it with soil, leaving the terminal end exposed. A wooden peg or stone and a bamboo stick can be used to hold the bent shoot and exposed shoot in their position. Rooting at nodes usually takes place in a month or so and the layered shoot is detached 15-2G days after root formation.

b. Air layering

It consists of removing a ring of bark, about 2.5 cm long, from around the shoot to be rooted and covering it with a rooting medium. The use of damp sphagnum moss around the ringed portion and covering with polythene film have been found beneficial. Application of some root promoting substances may further improve the root formation in air layers.

4. Cutting

Propagation of roses by cuttings is normally done to raise stocks for grafting or budding. Climber, Rambler. Polyantha and Miniature roses respond quite well to this method. Although cuttings are almost always prepared from shoots, root cuttings have also been found to form shoots and ultimately a new plant.

8. Root-cutting

Some rose species like Rosa blanda, R. nitida and R. virginiana can be propagated by root-cuttings. The cuttings should be taken from young and healthy plants and it is important to maintain polarity when planting. The proximal end (nearest to the crown of the plant) of root piece should always be up. The cuttings should be inserted vertically with the uppermost level of the rooting media.

b. Stem-cutting

Raising plants by stem-cuttings is one of the least expensive and easiest method of rose multiplication. Usually, stem cuttings give satisfactory results when rooted during the period from late June to November. Cuttings should normally be taken during the monsoon or spring. Each shoot should be cut clean just below the node and lower leaves removed.

Sand is the best rooting medium but vermiculite or perlite also gives satisfactory results. Addition of peat moss to the sand in proper proportions is useful as it increases the water-holding capacity of the medium. In case of Miniature roses, a mixture of perlite and peat moss in the ratio of 1 : 1 is good for rooting of cuttings. The cuttings are usually planted 3 cm apart in a row and 8 cm between rows and watered as per the need. Within a month or so, roots and shoots will develop from the cutting and in about a fortnight, the plants may be transplanted in another well prepared bed or in pots.

Regeneration of rose plants from cuttings is influenced by various factors such as type of cutting, treatment of cuttings, the age and physiological condition of the stock plant, type of wood selected for cuttings and environmental conditions during rooting. Hardwood cuttings are widely used in the propagation of rose rootstocks. Cultivars of Miniature roses are easily propagated by cuttings of soft-wood or semi- hardwood under mist. Hardwood cuttings taken from basal and mid portion of the shoot shows much better rooting than those taken from apical cuttings.

5. Seed propagation

This method of propagation is generally adopted by breeders for developing new cultivars with desirable characters. When the fruits are fully ripe, they are harvested and thoroughly dried before the extraction of seeds. Most rose seeds when mature are in a resting condition requiring an after-ripening period before germination. Stratificaiton of seeds at 1.6-4.4° C is required after harvest. Stratification for 6 weeks is sufficient for Rosa multiflora, R, rugosa and R. hugonis require 4-6 months, and R. blanda requires 10 months. Warm stratification followed by cold stratification has also been found beneficial in Rosa canina seeds which requires warm treatment at 26.6°c for 2 months followed by 3 months at 4.4°C for better germination. Hybrid rose seeds usually respond best to a stratification temperature of 1-4.4°C for 69-90 days.

Clean seeds are sown about 5 cm apart in pans or in small plots to raise the seedlings. Soil used for this purpose should be prepared adding a good quality of well rotten farm yard manure. Though the time of sowing mainly depends upon temperature, sowing in the months of October- November is ideal in most of the places. Seeds may take several weeks to germinate. Germination is probably pre- vented in rose seeds by inhibitators occuring in the seed coat, as well as by the mechanical restriction imposed by the massive pericarp. The stage of hip-ripeness is an important factor effecting germination. Temperature is another very important factors influencing the germination. Treatment of seeds with sulphuric acid and for 1-2 hours before sowing was found to improves the germination.

Rose seedlings tend to flower even when they are very small and this exhaust themselves. Therefore, the flower buds should be pinched off as soon as they appear, until the plants are reasonably large and sturdy. It is important to keep the seedlings growing continuously without any check in development. A continuous moisture and nutrient supply, control of weeds and of diseases and pests contribute to successful seedling growth.

VII. Root Stocks

For grafting or budding, proper selection of rootstock is of immense importance. Rootstocks are known to impart marked effects on the vigorous, precosity, productivity, quality of flowers, longevity of bushes, disease resistance, adaptability to soil climatic conditions etc, and therefore, it is necessary to choose the most suitable rootstocks for budding or grafting roses. The rootstock should have the following qualities.

i. It should produce fibrous root system.

ii. It can easily be propagated from cuttings.

iii. It should have vigorous growth habit, be healthy and resistant to diseases and frost.

iv. Plants should have uniform growth.

v. It should have a bark, thick enough to hold the bud firmly and provide sap to the budded plant.

vi. It should be reasonably free from suckers

vii. It should support the budded plant for a long time.

viii. It should withstand a wide range of soils and climatic conditions.

Some of the commonly used rootstocks are given here.

8. Rosa barboniana (Edward rose)

It is one of the most popular stock and used extensively in the northern plains of India. Plants are hardy, vigorous, propagated easily by cuttings, provide straight stems of suitable length and is found useful for budding standards.

b. Rosa canina (Dog rose)

It is usually propagated by seed since the cuttings do not root easily. However, the seeds are difficult to germinate. The prominent thorns make it difficult to handle. It also tends to produce sucker.

c. Rosa indica

This is a large climbing shrub and is used extensively as rootstock for greenhouse forcing roses. It is easily propagated from cuttings and under suitable conditions produces a large symmetrical root system. It is well adapted to both excessively dry or wet soil conditions and can withstand high soil pH. Since it is not cold hardy, it should be used only in areas with mild winters. Plants raised on this rootstock are vigorous and produce flower with longer stems. The rootstock is also quite tolerant to powdery mildew and insect pests. In India, it has been recommended for northern plains.

d. Rosa laxa

This is well adapted to rich heavy soils and plants budded on it have vigorous growth. It can be propagated both by seed and cutting and have a very good root system.

e. Rosa manetti

This is a very old stock used for propagating dwarf roses and for planting in sandy soils. It is easily propagated from cuttings, produces plants of moderate vigour, and is resistant to some strains of verticillium wilt. This rootstock has, however, proved unsuitable for the production of cut flowers in greenhouse.

f. Rosa multiflora

This is a widely used rootstock for outdoor roses. Several strains are available, some giving better bud unions and bud development than others. Cuttings of this species root easily, develop a vigorous, nematode resistant root system, and do not sucker excessively. It is adaptable to a wide range of soil and climatic conditions. In India, it does well In Bihar, Bengal and in the hills when used as rootstocks.

VIII. Preparation of Beds

Preparation of soil is the key to success with roses. It should be rich, porous and well drained. The initial preparation of rose beds should preferably be started during summer season, so that soil gets exposed to sun and air and during the monsoon it gets a chance to settle down before planting. The area selected for rose growing should be cleaned of weeds. According to the plan, the borders of the proposed beds should be properly marked.

If the soil is light, sandy and stony, the top 30 The dug up I soil is heaped on the ground cm of the soil in the bed should I be dug up to make trench. The dug up soil is heaped on the ground. The next 30 cm of soil In trench should be dug as deep as possible, and properly pulverized and levelled in the trench itself. After that about half portion of the dug out soil, heaped on the ground surface, should be returned to the trench. This layer needs manuring with organic manure @ 50- 60 tonnes/ha or FYM or compost. The remaining portion of the dug out soil should be returned to the trench. Application of superphosphate @ 30 kg/ha, and Aldrin or BHC (5% dust) @ 100 kg/ha is done, and the beds are irrigated thoroughly.

On the other hand, if the soil is heavy it would be necessary to dig out the second 30 cm layer of the so i) and heap on the ground surface. The next layer of the soil should be deeply dug, pulverized and levelled. The second layer of soil after it is pulverized and sun-dried, should be returned to the trench and manured with organic manure. @ 50 tonnes/ha. The remaining operations will be similar as in the case of sandy soil.

IX. Cultivation

Planting, pruning, application of manures and fertilizers, irrigation, weed control are some of the cultivation practices that are described here.

A. Planting

Few important preliminaries for planting are given here.

1. Cut away all immature, dead or diseased shoots and snags. Also as far as possible, eacl1 shoot to the next outward growing bud should be cut.

2. Remove all suckers growing below the point of union.

3. Reduce the possibility of loss of moisture, leaves including dried and yellow ones should be removed.

4. If the roses are with shriveled bark, immersing of the plants in water for 24 hours is necessary to plump them.

5. Immerse each plant in a suspension of one gram blitox in one litre of water to lessen the risk of attack of fungi.

At the planting time beds should be thoroughly prepared. At the planting time the soil should neither be too wet nor too dry. At each marked spot, a hole measuring 20-30 cm in diameter and 30 cm deep should be dug, and the plant with earth ball should be lowered into the hole. Then the soil around the plant should be pressed firm to avoid air pockets in the soil. The bed after planting should be thoroughly irrigated.

If the rose plants, are with bare roots, the roots along with stem up to the bud union should be dipped in water for about 6 hours before planting, to restore the loss of moisture during transit period.

Planting should be done with the bud union 2.5 -5.0 cm above the soil level. Roses can be planted any time except in very hot summer and during heavy rains when the soil is very wet. The suitable time for planting roses in most plains of India is during September-October and in the hills it is during October-November or February-March. In general a spacing of 60-75 cm between plants and rows is suggested.

B. Pruning

Pruning refers to the removal of certain portion of  plant. It is an important operation for maintenance of flariferousness and flower quality along with vigour of rose plants. The practice of rose pruning consists of two operations.

i. Thinning out, i.e. removal of old, weak, dry, twigs and diseased stem and branches from the point of start, and

ii. Shortening of stems, which aims at cutting down of last years growth to a desirable height.

1. Pruning time

The best time of pruning is the period plant is at dormant or near dormant stage. Pruning time will depend entirely on the climatic conditions of the region. The most usual time for pruning is during October-November after the rains are well over and the cold season is approaching. In Bangalore and around the coastal towns of Madras and Bombay pruning is practised twice in the months of November and June for winter season and monsoon season blooms. Pruning in the hills by the end of March or April.

2. Where and how to prune

While pruning a plant a cut has been made at about half- a-centimeter above a vigorous bud and the cut should be slightly slanting, sharp and clean.

All wounds are dressed with cane scaler to protect against attack of fungus and cane boring insects. The cut surface may be painted with fungicide or chaubattia paint( prepared by mixing 4 parts of red lead, 4 parts of copper carbonate, 5 parts of linseed oil, and a small quantity of BHC). Spraying of insecticides like rogor or malathion immediately after pruning.

3. Types of proning

Depending upon the extent and level of shortening, there are 3 types of pruning light, moderate and hard. In light pruning, the healthy shoots, left after thinning of diseased and unwanted portion, are cut. Moderate pruning is done by cutting back the ripe 'main and lateral shoots of the previous years growth at about half the length of the growth. Hard pruning consists of keeping only 3 or 4 shoots of the last year and heading back at about 3 or 4 eyes from the base.

As preliminary to the main pruning operation, all weak, diseased, dead and slender growing and overlapping branches are to be completely removed. In the remaining healthy growing shoots, the amount of pruning largely depends upon cultivar and class of rose, the health and vigour of the plant, space provided for each plant, fertility of soil and the desired flower quality etc. Generally, strong and sturdy plants are pruned lightly moderate growers moderately and weak plants relatively hard. If the soil is sandy, and the nutrient level in the soil is not high, pruning should be light. In case of heavy and fertile soils, pruning may be a little harder. Hard pruning is also advisable to obtain blooms with longer stems.

4. Pruning of one-year old plants

Rose plants should never be pruned until they are properly established and adapted to the new environment. In the first year of planting the pruning is done of weak, dead and  crowded branches to give a definite shape to the plants. The real pruning starts in the second year of the growth of plants. viz. Hybrid Tea and Floribunda groups.

Climbing and rambling do not require any pruning except the removal of weak, unhealthy, deed and interlaced twigs. The polyanthas are pruned lightly whereas the miniatures are not pruned.

5. Pruning of established rose plants

i. Hybrid teas

The established Hybrid Teas should have all dead, weak, damaged and crossing shoots removed from their point of origin, leaving only 4 or 5 healthy basal shoots. It has been observed that hard pruning, reduces the number of flowers per bush but increases the flower size and the length of stem.

ii. Floribundas

The main object of pruning roses of this class is the production of abundant flowers with mass effect in the bed. It is necessary to remove the mass of twiggy growth at the ends of the main stems and extra growths should be trimmed. Thus light or moderate pruning is the general recommendation for floribundas.

iii. Polyanthas

The primary objects of pruning roses of this group are to obtain large number of flowers and to give a good shape to the plant. Thinning of dead, weak and overcrowded shoots and tripping of the end of branches that have already flowered are all that is really necessary.

iv. Miniatures

Miniatures roses are generally not pruned except the removal of dead, diseased and overcrowding branches. Some of the older stems may also be pruned to make a well balanced compact bush which is the most desirable character of this class.

v. Climbers and ramblers

The hybrid tea climbers hardly need any pruning because it is desirable to promote the growth of the lateral and side branches to bear flowers. The best flowers are produced on the short branches that emerge from older canes. So they require  only removal of tips. The climbing Floribunda, Polyanthers and some shrubs of the Hybrid Musk group only bloom in the new wood.

vi. Standard

Standards which are generally hybrid teas or floribundas do not need drastic pruning. Growth which comes in the way of its main stem, should be removed to give symmetry to the plant.

vii. Shrubs

In general, the majority will not need any pruning but they may be cut back to keep them in shape. The weak and dead shoots should also be removed.

viii. Species of roses

Rose species and their allies also need no pruning. Once established and growing strongly, the dead and weak growth of the plants should be removed entirely from the base in the first year itself.

C. Manuring and fertilization

Rose is a nutrient loving plant and both major and micro nutrients play an Important role for its proper growth.

1. Manures

Organic manures like FYM, oil cakes, bone meal etc. are very essential which supply plant nutrients and maintains a good soil structure. Green manuring with sunnhemp and dhaincha can also practised. For the light soils, cattle manure and for the heavy soils horse or pig manure are best suited.

a. Rate of application

Sandy soils need heavier and more frequent application of organic manure than heavier soils. Application of well decomposed cowdung or FYM @ 8-10 kg/plant (4.5 tonnes/ ha) has been found useful for the growth and flowering of roses.

b. Time and method of application

The bulky organic manures in order of preference may be FYM, compost, cow dung slurry from biogas plants, cattle dung and activated sludge. Oil cakes and droppings of poultry, sheep or goat (@ 1 litre/plant) may be used for supplemental manuring. The quantity of these manures is smaller than in the basic manuring. Basic manuring in case of new planting should be done at the time of preparation of rose beds.

Supplementary manuring should be done after the first flush of blowing is over and there is pause for the next flush. The manure should be spread in a band around each rose plant, at least 20-30 cm away from the stern or between the rows of plants.

c. Liquid manures

Manures are decomposed in water so that plant nutrients from complex organic forms are converted to simple soluble forms. The liquid when applied to the soil reaches the plant roots directly and provides them with nutrient elements in readily utilizable forms. Excreta of animals and oil cakes after rotting are also used as liquid manure. The diluted liquid becomes lighter than that of tea liquor. The liquid (about 1 litre) is put around each plant, about 20-25 cm away from the stern. The soil should be moist at the time of liquid manuring. The application may be repeated at an interval of 5- 7 days till the flower buds start opening.

2. Inorganic fertilizers

For sustained production a plant health it is essential to apply fertilizer to roses. Urea, single superphosphate and both potassium sulphate and muriate of potash are the widely used fertilizers. The most common practice is to apply these fertilizers mixed to the soil in certain proportions, known as fertilizer mixtures. Micronutrients are usually supplied through foliar sprays.

a. Fertilizer rates

For improving the growth and flowering of roses, some formulae of the mixtures are given here.                            (by weight)

i)          Groundnut cake                       -5kg

Bonemeal                                 -6kg

Ammoniumphosphate   -2 kg

Ammoniumsulphate     -1 kg

Single superphosphate   -2 kg

Potassium sulphate       -1 kg

ii)         Nitrate of potash                       -6 parts

Ammonium sulphate    -2

Superphosphate                        -16"

Sulphate of potash                    -8"

Magnesium sulphate     -2

Iron phosphate              -1/2

This mixture is applied @ 50 -100 g/plant.

b. Time and method of application

Fertilizers are applied in three split doses and application should be made when there is sufficient moisture in the soil. Normally, the first application of the mixture is given about 15 days after pruning when the new growth has started. After the first flush is over the second does of fertilizer mixture is applied.

The method of application varies according to plant density and size of the plants. If the plant density is low, the requisite quantity of fertilizers mixture can be applied in a continuous band around the plant, 20 -25 cm away from the stem. If the plant population is fairly large, the fertilizer dose should be fixed according to smaller units and placed in continuous band in between the rows of plants, also between the plants and edges of the borders. The applied fertilizers incorporated into the soil but should not be deep.

c. Liquid fertilizers

A solution prepared by dissolving 0.680 gm KNO3, 340 gm ammonium sulphate and 170 gm potassium phosphate in 432 litres of water and applied at the rate of half gallon per plant three times a week for a month and thereafter once a week before slow, produced outstanding blooms suitable for exhibition. Another solution prepared by dissolving ammonium sulphate, 56.6 gm superphosphate and 28.3 gm sulphate in 36 litres of water and applied at 9 litres per plant is also found very useful to improve the quality of flowers.

The advantage of this method is that the nutrients in solution reach the plant roots immediately for utilization. The disadvantages are the extra cost of application, the risk of toxicity and fixation of phosphates to soil, rendering it unavailable to plants. As a regular feeding of rose plants this practice seems unnecessary.

d. Foliar feeding

This is an excellent supplement to root feeding because the. leaves can directly absorb the nutrients. At minimizes the amounts of fertilizer mixture used. The concentration of solution should not be very high (not more than 0.3%) it damages

the leaves.

For supply of macronutrients, the composition of the spray solution should be 7 gm of potassium sluphate, 14 gm  ammonium sulphate, 28.3 gm potassium nitrate in 36litres of water and is applied @ 1.36 g/litre. Good results can also be obtained by using ammonium phosphate and potassium nitrate in equal proportions by weight, and applying the mixture @ 2.5 g/litre of water.

In case of micronutrient deficiency foliar application of a solution prepared from the mixture containing 15g manganese sulphate, 20 g magnesium sulphate, 109 chelated iron I and 5g borax @ 2g/litre has been found very effective for obtaining brighter colour in flowers and foliage.

e. Combination of organic and inorganic manures

A pot mixture of 14 kg castor-cake, 9.5 kg finely powdered charcoal, 226 gm super phosphate, 113.2 gm carbonate of potash, 113.2 gm nitrate of soda, 283 gm leaf mould and 45.5 kg loamy soil is helpful for obtaining increased yield of flowers.

D. Irrigation

Adequate soil moisture at all stages of vegetative growth and flowering is essential for the rose plants to meet the water loss through transplantation and evaporation from soil. Water requirement also depends upon the size of the plant and the growth period.

In lighter soil more frequent irrigation is required than that in heavy soil. Rose beds can be watered once a week or 10 days in winter and twice a week during summer season.

E. Mulching

Mulching conserve soil moisture, supply humus making material and suppress weeds resulting in improved growth and flowering. Mulches also keep the soil some what cooler in summer.

Among the substances used for mulching, well rotten garden compost, FYM, Peat, straw sawdust, ground or whole corn cobs and other similar materials make satisfactory mulches. Mulches can be applied soon after the newly benched plants are established and growing satisfactorily.

F. Hoeing

Light hoeing is a very effective way to keep the soil porous so that light, air and water may reach the roots better to improve moisture retention capacity and to keep rose beds  free from weeds. Roses are shallow rooted plants and roots of established plants tend to grow near the surface. Therefore, shallow hoeing is preferred.

         

G. Weed control

Weeds pose a very serious problem in rose cultivation as they not only consume water and nutrients from the soil, but also act as hosts for a number of diseases and pests. Manual weed control is effective if done frequently. Chemical weed control is comparatively economical, convenient and efficient in eradicating weeds. Application of CMU and DCMU four to five weeks after planting in late December and early January controls all weeds, in a rose nursery.

X. Diseases and Pests

Major diseases and pests on rose are given here.

A. Diseases

Like any other crop, roses are also prone to many diseases, some of which have been found to be very destructive. The most important diseases and the measures for their control are described here.

1. Die-back

The causal organism is a fungus namely Diplodia rosarum. The disease causes death of the plant from top to downwards. When plants are pruned, sometimes, blackening of twigs starts below the pruned surface which extends further down, killing the whole plant. The older plants are more prone to the attack of the disease.

Control

a. Cut the affected parts and burn it.

b. The secateur should be disinfected with spirit and the cut ends immediately coated with a paste containing 4 parts of copper carbonate, 4 parts of red lead, and 5 parts of linseed oil. c. Add 0.1 % BHC to the paste to check the digger wasp attack. d. Grow resistant varieties like white Christmas, royal ascot, blue moon and crimson glory .

2. Black spot

This disease is caused by Diplocarpon rosae characterized by dark brown, circular spots with fringe borders, present on both sides of leaflets. At a later stage, the leaves becomes yellow and fall. If left uncontrolled, the whole stem is defoliated and the plant becomes weak. Leaf buds and the flower buds are also affected.

Control

Since the black spot fungus is located under the protecting cuticle, no fungicide can kill it without destroying the leaf. Hence, cure of this disease is difficult and prevention seems to be the only hope. The infected leaves, as soon as they are observed should be clipped off, taken out of field and burnt. Preventive sprays of fungicides like Zineb reduce the damage to a large extent. Martin Frobrisher, Belaya , John Cabot, and Carefree Beauty are also found to be resistant to black spot disease.

3. Rose wilt

It is a viral disease caused by Marmor flaccumfascines. The first symptom appears in the form of recurving of leaflets at the tip of young shoots which are brittle. Defoliation may happen, with leaves turning yellow and falling off. The stem also gets infected and the whole plant dies. In epidemic form, one infected plant could ruin the whole garden within a couple of years.

Control

Control of aphids, which transmit the disease, helps to control the infection. The affected plants should be removed and burnt.

4. Rose mosaic virus

Chlorotic areas along the midribs of the leaflets and localized distortion are the principal symptoms. Sometimes one finds ring and watermark pattern. Another strain of this virus causes brighter and light yellow patterns.

Control

Diseased plants should be destroyed and never used for propagation.

B. Pests

Roses attract a large number of pests which cause considerable damage. At almost every stage, be in the nursery or in beds, rose plants are prone to attack by various pests. Some of the commonly reported insects and other pests attacking roses are mentioned in detail here.

1. White ants

White ants also known as termites cause damage to rose plants even before they are established. Small colonies are formed inside the soil and the insects multiply very rapidly during the rainy season. The insects destroy the underground parts including the roots of the young as well as old plants. Sometimes rose plants wither.

Control

Apply .5% BHC or Aldrin in the pits before planting roses. Drenching of rose beds with Aldrin also controls the damage in established gardens.

2. Red scales

They infest roses in the green house and in the garden and the affected branches become dry. The insects can easily be detected by the reddish brown encrustations on the lower portion of old stem and at times the younger shoots also  which sucks the plant sap.

Control

The menace can be removed by rubbing the scurfy encrustations with a used tooth brush, or a cotton swab dipped in methylated spirit. Spraying the affected plants with insecticides like malathion or rogor will control the insect. Application of granular insecticides like carbofuron at 1.5 kg a.i/ha and Disulfoton and Phorate at 3.0 kg a.i. /ha also gives good control of rose scales.

3. Jassids (Leaf hopper)

These are very small, light grey or pale green insects which suck the cell sap from the leaves. It causes yellowing or whitening of the attacked surface, giving the plants a sickly appearance.

Control

Jassids can easily be controlled by spraying with 0.03% parathion, 0.1% Metacid or 8% Thimet as soil application. The use of 0.05% Monocrotophos is also effective in controlling jasids.

4. Red spider mite

As result of their feeding, white specks appear on the leaves and these specks coalesce and appear as white patches. Ultimately, affected leaves become mottled, turn yellow and fall. Some polyantha and floribunda roses completely lose their leaves prematurely due to the attack of this pest. The damage is more pronounced during warm and dry season.

Control

Frequent spray with sulphur helps to control this mite. Several mite-killers such as kelthane morestan, dimite, Tedion have been reported to be very effective in controlling rose mites, 1 ml of kelthane is throughly mixed with 10 m of water with 10-15 drops of any sticker and application of this chemical every 5 or 6 days may be sufficient to control the mites. Spraying the affected plants with 0.05% parathion or 0.1 % Metasystox is also suggested.

XII. Harvesting and Post-harvest Handling

Time and stage of harvesting, storing and transportation of the flowers are the important aspects to be considered.

A. Harvesting

The stage at which flowers should be cut, either for decoration or for despatch, is the tight-bud stage when the buds show full colour but the petals have not yet started unfolding. If harvested at this stage, they last longer and retain colour and freshness during transportation. If a flower bud of red cultivar cut at a little earlier stage it fails to open later. Pink and red cultivars should be allowed to develop to a stage where one or two of the outer petals begin to unfurl. Loose flowers, used for making garlands, preparing perfumes etc. are harvested only when they are fully open and collected in large open baskets.

The flowers should be cut in the early morning before sunrise or late in the afternoon when the sun is about to set as to avoid damage of buds due to high temperature during the day. Late harvest results in short vase life of cut flowers and low oil content in loose flowers used for preparing perfumes. For cut flowers, stem with two, five leaflet leaves should be cut and immediately dipped into clean water up to the base of the flower buds. The delay in keeping the flowers in a bucket of water will cause air entry and result in vascular blockage. The stems should be cut in water about 2 cm above the previous cut end. If they are not required for immediate use, the cut-flowers along with stems dipped in water in the bucket should be stored at a cool air temperature of 4.4 -7.2 C for about 6-12 hours to harden the buds and thus enhances their keeping quality. During winter (December-January) a shorter treatment for 6-8 hours is sufficient while a longer duration of 8-12 hours is required in March-April.

B. Packaging

The cut blooms are graded according to the length of stem and then packed in corrugated card-board boxes. The size of box varies with the quality and quantity of roses to be packed. The inside area of the box will be cushioned with polythene or soft materials. The blooms are generally packed in bundles. The upper half of each bundle having flower buds is wrapped in a corrugated paper which is fixed with an adhesive tape. Labeled flower bundles are placed opposite to another in such a way that their flower buds face the sides of the box and their stem ends towards the centre of the box The inside of the box is finally covered with a sheet of tissue paper before putting on the cover of the box. Along the outer edges of the box, adhesive tapes can be fixed to close it.

C. Yield

The yield of cut-flower depends on a number of factors such as type of cultivar, and cultural practices adopted from time to time. Gold strike and pink garnette, are high yielding cultivars which produces 24-28 flowers per plant. Sonora and Coral princess give low yields (15 flowers per plant per years) of 60% grade. Plant density has much influence on the yield of quality blooms per unit area. About 1,20, 000 cut flowers of exportable quality from an area of one hectare is obtained by close planting and providing plastic cover over the plants during November-February. In an essential oil-bearing rose, a yield of 6977 kg petals per hectare was recorded when planting was done at 2.5 x 0.5 cm apart. One of the best methods for maximization in yield and quality of flower is through balanced application of fertilizers.

XII. Importance and Uses

The rose, because of its utility, occupies a pre-eminent, place amongst the flower crops and is one of the oldest of fragrant flowers to be cultivated by man. Its different types having beautiful flowers of exquisite shape, different sizes, bewitching colours and most delightful fragrance has made it an important flower or its varied uses. The various ways in which rose can be used are mentioned in detail here.

A. Exhibition and decorative purposes

Varieties of roses which are most suitable to a particular type of decoration are given here.

1. Shrub or bush

Shrub or bush roses are planted in small groups at a height of 5-10cm from the ground level to create excellent mass effect in a rose or flower garden. They may also be mixed with other plants in a shrubbery, e.g. christian, midele double delight, first prize, gladiator, kiss of fire, midle meilland, montezuma, paradise, peace and super star.

2. Standard Rose

Standard rose or tree rose, is a very important feature in the rose garden. They are allowed to form buds only at the top leaving the entire stem clear of any vegetative growth. According to their height of budding they may be full standard (1.0 -1.5 metres high), half standards (45-60 cm high) or weeping standard (1.6 5m or higher above the ground). Hybrid Teas and few grandiflora are suitable for making the frill standard roses. Floribunda and Polyantha roses are excellent for growing as half standards. For weeping standards, climbing and rambling roses are used as the long branches of the crown may be allowed to hang down.

3. Climbers

The climbing and rambling roses can be used to coyer the walls of houses or fencing or pergdas, arbours and arphes. Ramblers produce flowers only once in a year and flowers ate in clusters lasting for several weeks. The beautiful climbers and Ramblers like America pillar, Blaze, Delhi Pink Pearl, Don Juan, Golden showers, Lamargue, Mardan white, Mardan Pink, Marechal Neil, royal gold add to the beauty of the garden.

4. Hedges and edges

A rose can also be used for making hedge or edge. Rose hedges except when pruned, remain full of life and colour and give protection due to the presence of thorns. Vigorous Floribundas are suitable for hedge and of necessary the plants can be planted in two rows. Some suitable cultivars are Border coral. Circus, Frensham and Runiba, Climbing or rambling roses may also be used for making tall hedges. Rose cultivars like coral in, Lady Reading, Magic, white Button etc. may be used for making edges.

5. Rockery

Roses may also be grown in rockeries and for this purpose hardy miniature and pompon cultivars such as Fairy Queen and Magic may be selected.

6. Pot plants

Roses can be easily grown as pot plants in suitable containers kept both indoors as well as outdoors. For balconies and terraces which receive limited sunlight minitares and dwarf polyanthas should be selected. The cultivars like Baby Darling, Cindrella, Starina etc. are quite suitable for this purpose. Bush roses may also be grown in pots for beautifying the compounds around the building and for display in rose shows.

7. Hangers

Miniatures can also be grown in hanging baskets and cultivars suitable for making rose hangers are climbing Miniatures-Red cascade and Yellow Doll.

B. Cut-flowers

Apart from making garlands, bouquets, button-holes their use for worship in temples, rose makes one of the best cutflowers and as such is in great demand in the internal as well as foreign markets. Germany is the biggest consumer and importer of cut-flowers. Rose cut-flowers are being exported from Maharashtra (India) to the Middle East countries.

Rose cut-flowers arranged in flower vases looks extremely beautiful and they have a rightful place in the scheme of interior decoration. In general, cultivars with more petallage and opening slowly with long lasting quality are chosen as cut flowers. Some of the cultivars suitable for this purpose are christian Dior, Happiness, Montezuma, Queen Elizabeth, Sea pearl and Super star. Presently cvs. Belinda, golden times, Illona, Laminuette, Montreal, Mercedes, Red success, Somia Meilland are in great demand as cut-flower in foreign markets. Two Indian or Arjuna and Raktagandha producing flowers with long stems are also suitable for cut-flowers.

C. Perfume and allied products

Oils, perfumes and other products made from rose petals are of superior quality.

I. Rose oil (Rose perfume)

Rose oil is an important commercial product obtained from rose petals. Apart from sweet fragrance it has medicinal value and is often used in Ayurveda. Bulgarian rose is largely used in perfuming soaps and cosmetics. Limited quantities of the oil are used in flavouring soft drinks and alcoholic liquors. Rose oil has antibacterial property. The commonly grown rose species for rose oil are Rosa damascena, R. borbonians, R. centifolia, R. alba and R. Gallica. In India, R. damascena

 and R. borborniane are cultivated for rose oil.

Though France, Cyprus, Greece, India, Iran, Italy, Morocco and the USA are important countries producing roseoiI, Bulgaria is a major producer and exporter of the roses and the rose perfumery .The oil is extracted by steam distillation and its quality depends much and cultivars and stage of picking. Generally 1 Kg oil is obtained from 3,000-4,000 kg petals. Among the different species, R. Damascena gives the maximum oil yield. R. borboniana and R. tepltiz are also good. The principal constitutents of normal rose oil are I-citronellol (40-65%), Geraniol, neroll-linalool, phenyl ethyl alcohol, small quantities of esters, nonyl aldehyde, citral, engenol sesquiter penes and the vaxy constituent stearoptene.

To obtain good quality rose oil, the flowers are to be harvested early in the morning, as the percentage of volatile oil decreases with the advancing day.

2. Rose water

Rose water is also an important commercial product obtained from rose petals. It is used as a perfume and in medicines and confectionary. It has the property of cooling the body and is often used in eye lotion and eye drops for its soothing qualities. It is also used in drinking water and social occasions. The roses used for preparing oil are also used for making rose water.

3. Gulkand

Rose petals are also preserved for direct consumption by making gulkand which is prepared by pounding equal proportions of petals and white sugar. It is considered both a tonic and laxative. Rose damascena, R. chinem's,. R. Gallica, R. ponifera and some other scented roses. e.g. Edouard are used for preparing gulkand.

4. Pankhuri

Dried rose petals are known as 'pankhuri' which is occasionally used {or preparing sweetened cold drinks.

5. Gul-roghan

It is a rose hair oil prepared from rose petals by enflurage with wet sesamum seeds.

D. Source  of vitamins

Rose hips are a very good source of ascorbic acid, i.e. vitamin C. Every 100g of rose hips syrup contains 150 mg of ascorbic acid as compared with only 50 mg present in fresh orange juice, 20 mg in tomatoes and 5 mg in apples. The ascorbic acid content, however, varies with species and some of the promising vitamin C bearing species are R. rugosa, R. ambhyotis, R. aciculari R. davaricas, R. pendulina, R. glauca and R. canina. Apart from Vitamin C, the hips of R. roxburghil,  R. acicularis, R. rugosa, R. davurica and some of the species are found to contain vitamins, Ai, B2, K and E.

E. Other Uses

In Europe, roses are used for making pot-pouri, conserves, rose vinegar and rose petal wine. Jams, jellies and syrups have been made for centuries in Bulgaria and exported. Rose aids in digestion and has certain curative properties. In CzechoslovakIa, fruits of wild roses are used for preparing a hot drink like tea and a popular wine. In America, bushes of R. multiflora are utilized as shock absorber or crash barrier.